Prepared and submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Abstract

Water insecurity poses severe threat to water-dependent agriculture and livelihoods in coastal Bangladesh. Different factors, most related to water insecurity, influence poor to leave their conventional subsistence farming and other agriculture based-livelihoods. The specific objectives of the present research are to explore how water insecurity is connected to agriculture-based livelihoods in coastal Bangladesh; to find out the drivers of poverty (along with water related drivers) among the studied villages; to figure out the present strategies, and possible solution to avoid livelihood vulnerability and poverty situation among the water-poor under study; and to explore if there is any difference between male and female headed households in terms of coping and adaptation strategies. With a mix-method approach, using household questionnaire survey and a number of qualitative tools, this research intends to capture the linkage between water and poverty in general and its impacts on agriculture-based livelihood decisions in particular.

This research has an extensive discussion on the key livelihood options of the coastal communities and how those livelihood patterns are closely connected to water related parameters. The research also focuses on the way water stress influences the agriculture-based livelihood opportunities and threats for people on the basis of empirical evidences and observed facts. The seasonality and spatial variability also receive attention to identify dimensions of those connections in different time periods. Findings suggest that the rich households are capable to undertake often different strategies and diversify their livelihoods in the areas where water-related risks are high whereas the poor have very limited opportunities and often try to engage themselves in various non-farm activities for their subsistence. Differential impacts on livelihood options to different wealth class has been observed, which suggests that the rich people have better chance and adaptation capacity whereas the poor are adversely affected and their chances are also limited. Study suggests that if poor have greater access to resources like fresh water, land and agricultural inputs, there may have greater chance to diversify their livelihoods and to improve their condition.

As per last objective, the research covers the gendered water-poverty relations. It also argues that the impacts created by water-related barriers are heterogeneous in nature and affect different actors differently, which did not receive much attention in contemporary literature. The respondents/participants of the research included female and male headed households, who are facing a number of challenges related to water. Purposive sampling method has helped to investigate how male and female headed households adapt to waterborne challenges like breaching, tidal water intrusion and salinity. To understand the gendered water-poverty relations, a Sustainable Livelihood Framework-based conceptual framework is adopted to observe how different types of capitals work in the adaptation process. Findings of the study suggest that the gender-based adaptation strategies are often influenced by social, cultural, economic and institutional barriers which create the key differences. The barriers produced differential impacts which affect female and male headed households differently. The findings aim to attract the attention of policy makers and development workers to shape the policies more inclusively that may benefit all actors.

Keeping pace with the objectives and aims, this advanced research monograph is divided into nine chapters. The first three chapters concentrate on introduction of the research theme, methodology and related conceptual notes with their theoretical framework, the later part explores the field data analysis and the examination of the collected facts along with their linkages with the specific objectives. The key and specific objectives are covered and specific findings are analyzed in subsequent chapters. The analyzed data suggest that it is hard to ignore the strong connection between water poverty in general, and water security, which has a positive influence on livelihood opportunities among the communities. The final chapter explores the in-context problem specific recommendations drawn from the survey and qualitative study participants, whereas the observations of the researchers and research assistants are given importance to a separate caption within the distinct headline.