Institutes

A Study on Labour Rights for Women in Readymade Garment Industries of Bangladesh

2026-08-09T05:33:27Z

A Study on Labour Rights for Women in Readymade Garment Industries of Bangladesh Razzaque, Naimul The RMG sector in Bangladesh is a critical contributor to the national economy; it represents about 11% of the country‘s GDP and encompasses about 84% of the revenues from exports. This industry employs approximately four million workers, out of which 60-65% are women. Though these women drive this success story, they are burdened with innumerable challenges regarding labour rights, including wage disparity, unsafe working conditions, and GBV. This research assesses the labour rights of women workers in Bangladesh's RMG sector, specifically their working conditions, wages, safety, and access to legal protection. In this study, the labour rights problems faced by women in the RMG sector were investigated using mixed-methods research, in which both quantitative and qualitative techniques were combined to give a comprehensive view. Conducted between November 2024 and February 2025, data from a total of 375 female workers were collected using structured questionnaires, which gathered information on working conditions, wages, safety, and job satisfaction across five RMG factories in Savar and Gazipur, two major industrial hubs in Bangladesh. Qualitative insights complemented the quantitative data obtained from 20 in-depth interviews and 4 FGDs with key stakeholders such as female workers, factory managers, union representatives, and labour rights activists. The integration of these methods allowed the study to capture not only the statistical trends but also the personal experiences of the workers, better understanding the challenges they face. The study is intended to unravel the nexus between economic empowerment and labour rights, as well as identify the impediments facing women workers in realizing their full labour rights in the workplace. One of the key findings from this study reveals that there is still a persistent gender pay gap issue in the RMG sector. While women comprise the majority of the workforce, 78% of female workers receive wages below a living wage. Further, there is a 20% gender pay gap at the managerial level of employment, where men have higher-paying jobs in management, while women hold lower-paid manual labour positions like sewing machine operator and helper. The existing wage gaps prove there is discrimination against women, who get paid less for the same work than men. Another urgent issue is workplace safety. In spite of the regulations concerning fire drills and the implementation of other safety measures, 65% of the probed factories did not hold fire drills as legally demanded, leaving workers vi particularly vulnerable in case of an emergency. Secondly, 85% of women workers reported feeling unsafe in their workplace due to poor safety features such as bad fire exits, poor ventilation, and an absence of protection gear. These conditions have continued to raise great concern, especially following the devastating fall of Rana Plaza in 2013, exposing failures in the safety legislation in this industry. Union representation is weak, with only 5% of workers unionized, and fewer than 10% of the leadership positions are held by women. The consequence of such underrepresentation greatly reduces the extent to which female workers are able to assert their rights for better wages, improved safety conditions, and freedom from discrimination. The study found that significant cultural and institutional barriers exist for women joining unions, with many fearing retaliations by factory management or dismissal from their jobs. The RMG sector is filled with various cases of gender-based violence. In the study, it was reported that 90% of the female workers had faced some kind of harassment, which included verbal, physical, or sexual harassment. However, the same percentage, 82%, never received a solution because of the weak grievance mechanisms and fear of retaliation. The inefficiency in policies and mechanisms for addressing harassment issues in workplaces has led to the persistence of such violations, making the environment inappropriate and insecure for females. Although the Bangladesh Labour Act guarantees maternity benefits, many of the women workers are not receiving any such benefits despite legal protections granted within the amended version of 2006, revised in 2018. The study revealed large numbers of women either being refused maternity leave or forced into resignation during pregnancy, which leaves many workers bereft of income and job security during this very critical period. On top of this, the absence of childcare facilities at the workplace exacerbates women's challenges in balancing work and family responsibilities. It also investigated the awareness of labour rights among women workers. Most women had very little knowledge of their rights as stated in the national laws on labour and international conventions. Some workers had general information about their rights, though a significant proportion did not have substantial details about certain provisions, such as about wages, hours of work, and even maternity leave. Indeed, this lack of awareness is what further exacerbates their inability to claim these rights and access legal remedies when violations occur. The study has put forward a number of recommendations to enhance the labour rights for women workers in Bangladesh's RMG sector: The government should develop more vii comprehensive strategies for enforcement of existing labour legislation, including wages, workplace safety, and gender-based violence. Implementation of the Bangladesh Labour Act should go hand in hand with accountability for non-compliance at factories. Effective implementation needs to be matched with strengthening regular inspections through the Department of Inspection for Factories and Establishments, in order to ensure that not only are safety standards upheld, but workers' rights are better protected as well. The study advocates for gender-sensitive workplace policies regarding paid menstrual leaves, maternity benefits, and increasing childcare support. It would make work more accommodating and help women balance work and family responsibilities. Affordable childcare and paid menstrual leaves would reduce the stigma associated with reproductive health and enable women to be more active participants in the workforce. Improvement in labor rights therefore requires increased women's participation in unions and their leadership. The study suggests that the unions actively involve women, conduct labor rights training, and union leadership training. This would equip the female workers with the capacity to advance their rights. The research study requires safety measures to be put in place, including compulsory fire drills and adequate emergency exits. Training workers on safety procedures and enforcing minimum standards of safety in factories will reduce the frequency of accidents and promote a more favorable working environment. The government should allocate adequate resources to increase factory inspections and prosecute non-complying industries. There is an urgent need to spread awareness on labour rights among the women workers. The NGOs, trade unions, and civil society organizations should actively inform the workers about their rights under the Bangladesh Labour Act and international conventions and enable them to seek justice when necessary. The international buyers must take increasing responsibility for ensuring that their suppliers in Bangladesh maintain ethical standards in labor practices. Imposing strict codes of conduct can be useful for global brands in making factories follow labor laws regarding gender equality, safety, and fair wages. This needs cooperation with local stakeholders for long-term improvement in the industry. This research evidences the critical role that women workers play in Bangladesh's RMG sector and points out a range of barriers to securing their labour rights. While the sector has opened economic opportunities for women, these gains are being eroded by systemic exploitation, poor working conditions, and weak enforcement of labour laws. For truly sustainable and inclusive growth, strong labour regulations with viii strict enforcement, better safety standards, union leadership by women, and gender equity at workplaces will have to be ensured in the Bangladesh RMG sector. By taking on these challenges, the industry will engender a more just and equitable environment for the millions of women who contribute to its success. This thesis is submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy.

Livelihood Strategy and Vulnerability of Brass and Bell Metal Artisans in Bangladesh

2026-08-09T05:30:04Z

Livelihood Strategy and Vulnerability of Brass and Bell Metal Artisans in Bangladesh Mahmud, Hossain Brass and bell metal craftsmanship in Bangladesh is a living tradition reflecting the region’s deep cultural and historical heritage. Metallurgical practices in Bengal date back to the Chalcolithic Age (c. 1500 BC), with widespread use of iron emerging around 1000 BC. Copper, its alloys, and iron were the most important materials to be employed in metal work, with silver and gold being utilized on a more limited basis. This craft not only reflects the technological capabilities of the region but also embodies within itself its rich culture. The thesis examines artisans’ livelihood strategies and multidimensional vulnerabilities in three historically significant craft clusters: Islampur (Jamalpur), Kagmari (Tangail), and Dhamrai (Dhaka). The aim of the study is to examine how these artisans’ communities surmount socio-economic challenges without discarding century-long traditions, and identify key gaps between policy design and practice at the ground level that threaten the longevity of craft. A mixed-methods method employed to study collected data from 210 craftspeople (70 per site) between November 2022 and February 2023 through structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and participant observation. The research objectives included the assessment of demographic profiles, livelihood strategies, assets bases, vulnerability contexts, coping xiv mechanisms, and policy effectiveness. The argument of the thesis posits that although there are progressive policies, policy implementation failures beget policy-practice gaps and thus economically marginalize artisans while they continue to be culturally cherished. The findings of the study revel the vulnerabilities: 82% reflect lack of access to capital, 95.7%-90% are men everywhere, and religious composition reflects 79.1%-61.4% Hindu participation consistent with historic patterns of patronage. Income insecurity is felt by 95.71% of Islampur artisans with psychological stress, and educational attainment ranges from 37.1% illiteracy in rural Islampur to 47.1% primary school education in peri-urban Dhamrai, reflecting geographical variation. Occupational hazards still remain untackled, 77.1% without safety equipment and only 2% undergoing safety training. Women remain significantly excluded, and their valuable contribution in polishing and finishing is yet to be recognized and appreciated. In spite of these difficulties, the producers demonstrate adaptive resilience through the development of digital interaction (18.57% application of online marketing in Dhamrai), product diversification (27.14% in Dhamrei), and skill upgradation (14.76% in Kagmari). That only 50.1% of people learn skills through family tradition shows that intergenerational transmission is under threat. Policies are suggested by the study, such as better interministerial coordination, gender-responsive training duties, digital literacy modules, clustering of crafts, facilitated access to financing (at a 5% interest rate as requested by the craftsmen), and environmental sustainability. The study can contribute to longitudinal designs for the measurement of socio-economic transitions, extend geographical scope to other centers of craft (Bogura, Chapainawabganj, Munshiganj etc.), examine women’s invisible labour inputs, and examine digital marketplace effects towards protecting traditional craftsmanship. This thesis is submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy.

Association of socioeconomic condition with serum uric acid, urea & creatinine profile of women reproductive age in some selected areas of Bangladesh

2026-08-09T05:07:41Z

Association of socioeconomic condition with serum uric acid, urea & creatinine profile of women reproductive age in some selected areas of Bangladesh Ara, Ferdous Background: In the human body the kidney plays a significant role in the homeostatic mechanism. Any disruption in kidney functionality is reflected through high levels of serum creatinine, urea and uric acid. Disruption in kidney functionality can be associated with the nutritional status of a population and their socioeconomic conditions. However, information is limited on the association between socioeconomic conditions and abnormal kidney function markers in women of reproductive age (WRA). Therefore, the goal of the study was to determine the association of socioeconomic condition and nutritional status with serum uric acid, urea and creatinine of WRA in selected areas of Bangladesh. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was directed among 178 WRA in different places of Bangladesh (rural Chittagong, rural Gazipur, Meherpur and Kushtia, Shatkhira). Data on demographic, socioeconomic and anthropometric variables were collected. Blood samples were also collected. DIALAB GmbH semi-automatic biochemistry analyzer DTN-405 (Austria) was used to conduct biochemical tests of the blood samples. Logistic regression analysis was used to control the association between kidney function abnormalities and associated factors. Results: The study results showed that about 23.6% of the study participants were underweight, 56.7 % had normal body mass index (BMI) whereas 19.7% of participants were overweight or obese. The average (mean ± SD) serum levels (mg/dl) were 5.74±2.07 for uric acid, 17.93±9.83 for urea, and 0.89±0.28 for creatinine and 92.18±35.86 mL/min/1.73 m² for estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Elevated levels of creatinine, uric acid, and urea were observed in 27%, 31.5%, and 41% of the participants, respectively. Additionally, chronic kidney disease (CKD) vi was identified in 18% of the participants. Overall, normal kidney function markers were found among about 31% of the respondents, while 5% showed elevated levels for all three markers. The odds of having at least one or more elevated kidney function markers were significantly higher (AOR=2.8; 95% CI: 1.22-6.42; p < 0.05) among individuals with a BMI greater than 18.5 kg/m² compared to underweight women. After adjusting for related factors, BMI was found to be significantly associated with the risk of elevated kidney function markers. Conclusion: The study found that only one-third of the WRA had all normal kidney function markers. After adjusting for related factors BMI was found to be significantly associated with the risk of elevated kidney function markers. The findings highlight alarming information about women’s health and suggest that routine analysis is desirable to improve women’s health in our country. Further studies are required with a larger sample size to understand deeply and assist the relevant ministries in policy making. This thesis is submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy.

Diet Quality and Affordability of Healthy Diets among Workers of Selected Garments Industries in Bangladesh

2026-08-09T05:04:53Z

Diet Quality and Affordability of Healthy Diets among Workers of Selected Garments Industries in Bangladesh Afrin, Shazia Background: The ready-made garment (RMG) sector is key to Bangladesh's economy, significantly contributing to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and foreign exchange earnings. However, RMG workers, predominantly women, face critical challenges related to health, nutrition, and productivity. Despite their socio-economic importance, research on diet quality and the affordability of nutritious diets by RMG workers remains limited. This study aimed to evaluate the diet quality as well as the affordability of healthy diets among RMG workers of selected garment industries in Bangladesh. Methods: This study used baseline survey data from the “Strengthening Workers' Access to Pertinent Nutrition Opportunities” (SWAPNO) project, funded by the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN). A secondary analysis was conducted on cross-sectional data collected from 801 RMG workers (333 males and 468 females) employed in two apparel industries in Dhaka and Mymensingh. Participants were selected using convenience sampling. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, dietary intake (assessed using the 24-hour recall method), nutrient adequacy, and micronutrient intake expressed as a percentage of the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) were evaluated, along with anthropometric measurements. Nutritional status was assessed using body mass index (BMI) classified according to both World Health Organization and Asian-specific criteria. The affordability of a healthy diet was evaluated, and statistical analyses were performed to examine associations between diet quality, nutritional status, mean probability of adequacy (MPA), and relevant socioeconomic factors. Results: Among the 801 RMG workers studied, 58.4% were female, and 90.3% were aged 18 to 34 years. Female workers generally had lower educational attainment and income levels compared to males. The dietary analysis showed a heavy reliance on calorie-dense foods, particularly rice, with a low intake of fruits, vegetables, and pulses. Macronutrient distribution indicated excessive carbohydrate intake (67.0% of total energy), while fat intake was often below ideal levels in 43.4% of participants (less than 15% of total energy). Calcium consumption among RMG workers was alarmingly low, with most consuming less than 50% of the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR). Similarly, intakes of iron, zinc, riboflavin, and vitamin A are at or below the EAR, viii indicating a high risk of inadequacies. While niacin and folate exceeded the EAR, vitamin C intake was highly variable. A dual burden of malnutrition was observed, with 7.4% of workers underweight and 21.5% overweight or obese based on Global WHO BMI standards, while it was 44% overweight or obese based on WHO Asian BMI standards. The logistic regression analysis showed that the mean probability of adequacy (MPA) for micronutrients was significantly higher among RMG workers in Mymensingh (AOR 1.68, p = 0.004) and among those aged 25 to 34 years (AOR 1.40, p = 0.049), while other socio-economic factors had no significant effect. Regarding the affordability of healthy diet, this study found that most workers could afford energy-sufficient diets; however, 68% of the workers were unable to afford a healthy diet due to economic constraints. Logistic regression analysis further showed that higher income (BDT > 13,000), smaller household size, and the presence of multiple earning members were significantly associated with better affordability of a healthy diet. Conclusion: This study highlights significant nutritional challenges among RMG workers in Bangladesh, marked by widespread micronutrient inadequacy and a dual burden of malnutrition, particularly among female workers. Economic barriers remain a critical impediment to accessing healthy diets. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted interventions to improve diet quality, address micronutrient inadequacies, and promote balanced macronutrient intake while addressing affordability constraints. This thesis is submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy.